Marketing

"Successful media products depend as much upon marketing and distribution to a specific audience as they do upon good production practices." To what extent do you agree with this statement within the media area you have studied?

     The marketing budgets for the two films "Kingsman: The Secret Service" & "Guardians of the Galaxy" are $12 and $40 million, respectively. This immediately shows the main difference between US and British film industries as the British film had half of the marketing budget as the US film. One of the reasons for this is to do with how easy it is for US companies to market on certain medias due to them owning something on each platform, such as how Disney owns multiple TV channels, magazines etc. This allows certain companies to market their film with a much cheaper cost as they do not have to buy airtime from a separate company. Very few, if any, British companies have the availability to do this and so rely on American companies or simply market in other means.
      As theorists Hall and Holmes stated in 1998, “Any media text is created for a particular audience and will usually appeal most to this particular target audience”. This explains how important it is to get marketing correct and how impactful it can be when directed to a specific audience in terms of viewership. Were the marketing done to not be specified to the target audience it is possible to repel viewers 

Audience

“Any media text is created for a particular audience and will usually appeal most to this particular target audience” - (Hall and Holmes, 1998)

Hypodermic Needle Theory:

The theory that the 'mass audience' is able to be 'injected' by messages from the media. Even though some critics still believe that there is some truth to this model, others felt that this model over simplifies the situation. David Morley did a nation wide ‘Reception Theory’ study in 1980 to determine how different audiences view the same text and found an audiences perception fell under:

• A preferred reading of the text most likely to be received by the intended target audience who share the same ideologies (people read it as the creators intended – this is the closest to the hypodermic needle).
• An oppositional reading, generally by people who are not in the intended target audience (they reject the meaning intended and receive an alternative meaning).
• A negotiated reading (basically accept the meaning but interpret it to suit their own position/ideologies.

UK Age Ratings:

US Age Ratings:

• G - General Audiences/All ages admitted
• PG - Parental Guidance Suggested
• PG13 - Parents Strongly Cautioned
• R - Restricted/Under 17 Require Parent or Guardian
• NC17 - No One 17 and Under Admitted

Blumler & Katz (1973):

Contemporary Age Ratings In British Cinema:
During the 90's, the British film industry was producing films with age ratings of 18+. This severely limited the viewing availability from certain audiences as they are not able to legally watch the film. It also can be seen as repulsive by some as they will imagine that by having it as an 18+ rated film that it will not be a relaxing or enjoyable film. Age ratings are in place somewhat due to the Hypodermic Needle Theory. This is the theory that mass audiences can be strongly influenced by messages from the media and so age ratings are in place to 'protect' younger audiences from messages that are deemed unsuitable for them.

Research shows that the primary demographic for cinema go-ers is between the ages of 15-24. This 

Production Cycle

Pre-Production

• Producer or studio acquires rights to story/ an independent production company chooses a distributor
• Develop screenplay
• Cast/crew, filming locations, equipment organised

Production

• Principle photography in studios or on agreed locations takes place

Post-Production

• Editing and test screening to gather feedback from target audience, may include re-shooting scenes
• Master print of film finished and given to distributor
• Distributor plans release dates
• Distributor presents film to exhibitors and negotiates agreements for film to be shown in cinemas
• Marketing campaign for buzz
• Launch film
• Film runs for as long as demanded
• Marketing of home media begins after cinema run
• Film released on home media and for download

The Rise and Fall of the British Film Industry

The differences between the American and British film industries between 1930 - 2000 grew as time passed but they were originally quite similar, doing primarily thrillers and comedies, as they could be done on the small budgets allotted. The 30's was the early days of cinema in both Britain and the US and so there was much intrigue from the public but little investment from companies, due to its recent nascence. Comedies such as Charlie Chaplain's and thrillers such as Scarface were among the most popular. Britain's film industry was being critically acclaimed for the director Alfred Hitchcock, who was famed for his thrillers, a poplar genre of the time.





In the 40's the film industries began to part when World War II was happening, the British Film Institute began making war propaganda films such as 49th Parallel and The Lamp Still Burns. This was widely considered Britain's golden era of film and was the all-time high for viewing numbers. Thrillers and dramas were still very popular due to their prior success and for making easy viewing experiences but was lacking slightly in quality due to the recent departure of Alfred Hitchcock for America's film industry in Hollywood.





Through the 50's, America had a much easier time competing with Britain's film industry due a great number of the studios in Britain being destroyed by the bombings of London during World War II. This was also the decade where many sic-fi films began to be produced, such as War of the Worlds and Invasion of the Body Snatchers, especially by Hollywood as they generally had a much larger budget than other film industries. While Britain's industry was rebuilding, they were creating social-realist films such as Look Back in Anger and Room at the Top where the focus was on the hardships of the working class. To audiences outside of the UK, these were received poorly as they could not understand the cultural references and so did not sell well.





During the 60's sci-fi was still a nascent genre but potent nonetheless with the greatly successful 2001: A Space Odyssey. Alfred Hitchcock was still an incredibly successful director, creating a great deal of viewership for America with The Crows and especially with Psycho. The UK were still making social-realist films and as a result, began slipping further behind the American film industry even more dramatically. Near the late 60's there was a cultural revolution of sorts that ushered in a more free-spirited cinema that gave much more attention to Britain's film industry but unable to bring it back to the viewing numbers of the 40's.


The decade following, the 60's, was a slow down for both American and British film industries as neither had the financial status to create consistent blockbusters. The British film industry had its funding cut substantially by the Conservative government of the time and the US industry was fairing poorly due to the on going Vietnam War becoming a costly priority. The primary genre of the 70's for Britain was Crime dramas. Films such as A Clockwork Orange and Get Carter topped charts in views as they often gave light to and a serious portrayal of what working class in large cities may have had to deal with, but appropriated into a film. Two notable exceptions to this were the Monty Python films of 79 & 75. Monty Python and the Holy Grail and Monty Python's Life of Brian, respectively, were clear juxtapositions from the grit of Crime dramas and also showed how even low budget films can be wildly successful. America, at the time, was somewhat similarly creating many dramas such as Jaws and Apocalypse Now, the latter being highly relevant to that period as the film portrayed elements of the Vietnam War that America was involved in. The US also found success in certain science fiction films  such as Alien and Star Wars, both being considered classics and sprouting numerous sequels each despite the poor economic state of the Hollywood industry.


In the 80's there was somewhat of a struggle for the British film industry due to the introduction and growth of the home television as well as the government subsidising a percentage of all ticket sales. The 101 million annual admissions to 54 million in 1980 and 1984 respectively.

History of British Film Industry

Slumdog Millionaire

Setting: Mumbai
Lighting: Artificial & blue/ Natural & orange
Costumes: Simple cloth
Genre: Social realist drama
Camera Work: Lots of close ups and low angle shots
Editing: Few special effects, trailer captions amateur looking

1990-1: World Wide Web launched publicly

1999: 'Napster' and rise of free digital content

Hollywood Case Study

Guardians Of The Galaxy -

Production: Marvel Studios

Distribution: Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures

Director: James Gunn

Writers: James Gunn, Nicole Perlman, Dan Abnett (comic book), Andy Lanning (comic book)

Cinematographer: Ben Davis

Music Composer: Tyler Bates

Star Actors:

• Chris Pratt
• Zoe Saldana
• Dave Bautista
• Bradley Cooper (voice)
• Vin Diesel (voice)

Budget: $170,000,000

Box Office: $774,176,600

Filming:

• Filmed at Millennium Bridge in London (inspiration from places such as Singapore)
• Filming began July 2013

Nationality: US

Source Material Owners: Marvel Studios

Release Pattern: 

• Holywood Premiere ~ (21 July 2014)
• UK ~ (31 July 2014)
• US ~ (1 August 2014)

Examples of Marketing: 

• Trailer first debuted on a popular American talk show
• A two-part comic was released, preluding the films events, by the creators of the original source material for the film
• A fake website was advertised as a travel agency that showcased multiple locations from the film

Formats: 3D &  IMAX 3D

Age Rating: PG-13/12A

British Case Study

What is a British Film?

As critic McDougall (2008) states there are various 'official' ways of categorising British films. The most common is through using the following categories defined by the BFI (British Film Institute):

Category A: Films made with British money, personnel and resources.

Category B: Films co-funded with money from British and from foreign investment, but for which the majority of finance, cultural content and personnel are British.

Category C: Films with mostly foreign money (but non USA) investment and a small British input either financially or creatively.

Category D: Films made in the UK with (usually) British cultural content, but financed fully or partly by US companies.

Category E: US films with some British involvement.

Kingsman: The Secret Service -

Production: 20th Century Fox (US)

Distribution: 20th Century Fox (US)

Director: Mathew Vaughn

Writers: Jane Goldman (screenplay), Mathew Vaughn (screenplay), Mark Millar (comic book), Dave Gibbons

              (comic book)

Cinematographer: George Richmond

Music Composers: Henry Jackson, Matthew Margeson

Star Actors: 

• Colin Firth
• Samuel L Jackson
• Michael Caine
• Mark Strong
• Taron Egerton

Budget: $81,000,000
Box Office: $412.4 million

Filming: 

• Filmed in various places in London
• Filming began 6th October 2013

Nationality: English

Source Material Owners: Mark Millar, Dave Gibbons
Release Pattern:

• London Premiere ~ (14 January 2015)
• UK ~ (29 January 2015)
• US ~ (13 February 2015) The US release date was planned for 14 November 2014 but was pushed back to 6 March 2015, then moved up to 24 October 2014 and finally back to 13 February 2015

Examples of Marketing:

• As the film was based on a comic book, there was a comic made relating to the film in a similar style
• The director teamed up with a luxury retailer, Mr Porter, to create a 60-piece clothing line based on the film

Formats: IMAX
Age Rating: R/15

Ethnicity

Stereotypes

English :

• White - racist, drug users, 
• Black - criminal, violent, 
• Indian - poor, working class, 
• Pakistinian - terrorists, 
• Syrian - refugees, terrorists, troublemakers, 
• Asian - poor drivers, intelligent, bankers, 

American :

• White - racist, homophobic, gun toters, 
• African American - criminal, violent, 
• Mexican - job stealers, manual workers, 
• Asian - poor drivers, intelligent, bankers, 

“The legacy of several hundred years of western expansion and hegemony, manifested in racism and exoticism, continues to be recycled in western culture in the stereotypical images of non-western cultures.”  - Pieterse 1992

Whiteness has been naturalized, as though it is an invisible ‘norm.’ When it is of course an ethnic group like any other. - Sarita Malik 1998

Stuart Hall highlighted in 1981 when he argued; "There is a grammar of race based on a traditional diet for the British Media that is based on the standard image of blackness being the social problem."

"We don't want a balanced view. The whole society is unbalanced against us," - Sivanandan 1983

Regional Identity

Theorist Andrew Higson (1998) writes, "identity is generally understood to be the shared identity of naturalised inhabitants of a particular political-geographical space -  this can be a particular nation or region."

Benedict Anderson (1983) maintains that the media play a vital role in constructing a national/regional identity as in reality the nation is too big for everyone to know each other yet they often have shared values ; "The unification of people in the modern world is achieved not by the military but by cultural means, in particular the media system enables people (of a nation or region) to feel part of a coherent, meaningful, and homogenous community."

Higson goes on to day, " Stereotyping is a form of shorthand ... a way of establishing character ... that often reducing the character to the most basic form so that the stereotype often becomes comic," (Higson 1998)

Higson, "No wonder then that a particular characteristics may be criticised for being stereotypical meaning it lacks a realistic dimension, it fails to match up to the reality of identity," (Higson 1998)

Medhurst, "They're awful because they're not like us,"


'Colloquial dialect'

• Oggy - Pasty
• Call Me Dreckly - Call me later
• Proper Job - Nice work
• Wasson? - What's going on?

Social Class

Medhurst's 1998 theory; "They are awful because they are not like us,"

Richard Butsch (1992) who says working class males in the media are presented as; "Incompetent and ineffectual, often a buffoon, well-intentioned but dumb. In almost all working-class series, the male is flawed"

Keith Gandal's, in 2007 he said that target audiences are drawn in by the; "Sentimental rags-to-riches story,"

Classes B/C1 are represented as the; "Social norm" (Gandal, 2007)

Downton Abbey is set in the 19th century where there were clear divides between social classes, especially when considering attire. Those in this image would be of a higher class as they are all dressed in dull, 'sensible' coloured suits and dresses with few exceptions. The fact that most of those in this image are of considerable age means that each of these potentially wealthy people would have become that in their own lifetime rather than having inherited it which would imply a sense of responsibility and self-achievement from many of these characters. Their posture also connotes wealth and importance due to their correct posture, as well as their facial expressions being similar, which shows that the group is more conscious of their image and what they look like to others.

 

Shameless is a modern-day drama. The people in this image are clearly representative of a lower class. This is apparent through both their body language and their apparel. Their bright, mis-matched clothing shows a lack of care for what looks 'smartest'. Many of the characters in this image also have  disheveled hair which further connotes a lower social class. Each of the characters appears to have vary varied facial expressions which shows that this group is uncoordinated and unruly.


     In this extract of Shameless there are clear representations of Butsch and Medhursts theories. These theories are further supported by camera work, miss-en-scene, sound, and editing.

     The opening scene shows a low angle medium shot with a teenage male walking down a city road with rows of houses behind him. The mise-en-scene in this scene implies that he is of a lower class, through his attire of a hoodie and trainers, and that he lives in some kind of estate, as suggested by the cheap looking housing. As the camera pans 180 degrees to show the viewer what the young male character is looking at it shows a semi-detached house that appears to be owned by someone of a higher class than what is implied of the teenage male. This disrupts Gandals 2007 theory somewhat as the 'norm' in this area is definitely of a lower class than C1 -B, which he claimed to be a "Social norm". By having the camera pan behind itself this breaks the 180 degree rule in filming, which helps keep clarity for the viewer. As they broke it, this could be to make the viewer feel uncomfortable due to the clear change in class, perhaps similar to how the teenage character is meant to feel from that transition.

     The next scene shows a cut in of the teenagers hand knocking on a door and pans up and back to show his face over his shoulder. The camera in this scene is handheld and shakes visibly, this relates to how he would feel approaching the house of a higher class as they do not relate to him and he would feel somewhat alienated. His alienation supports Medhursts theory of "they're awful because they're not like us" in relation to media portrayals of most stereotypes and how 'us' refers to middle aged straight white males that 'control' the media. During this scene there is a short non-diegetic music cue. The music is used for only a few seconds after the teenage character is met at the door by a middle aged woman. As the music is non-diegetic and cheerful it could be representative of the teenage characters relief after confronting what was made out to be an unfavourable situation of meeting those of an apparent higher class.

     Near the centre of the extract there is a scene with the same teenage character and a second middle aged female in what appears to be a teenagers bedroom. This is implied through mise-en-scene where the wall is littered in bright posters of different subjects, there are also objects present in the scene that giveaway that it is clearly a bedroom such as a dresser and wardrobe as well as an actual bed. the mise-en-scene also implies it is from the families in the lower class as there are many conventions present that link to those in a working class society such as the fact that there are so many posters on the wall connoting having things to look up to and generally being a stereotypical 'consumer', which is someone in the working class. Other factors such as the teenagers clothing dictate that he is within a specifically lower class as he is dressed in a hoodie and jeans, typical to his youth, and indicative that he is not of a high class background or family as they stereotypically dress much more 'intelligently' and resent using bright colours, such as the ones found on the posters in his room.

Disability

Jessica Evans (1998) drawing on the works of Freud and other psychoanalysts, states:

“Disabled people are seen as childish, dependant and underdeveloped and are regarding as ‘other’ and are punished by being excluded from ordinary life. Thus popular images and rhetoric of disabled people abound which comfort us with people who are imperfect, helpless, unattractive, disgusting, shitty, dribbling,” (Evans, 1998).

Cumberbatch & Negrine (1992), Barnes (1992), and Longmore (1987) point out studies of the representation show that disabled people are screened out of television fiction or else occur in a limited number of roles.

As Jordanova (1989) stated; “The idea of otherness is complicated, but certain themes are common: the treatment of others as more like an object, something to be managed and possessed, and as dangerous, wild, threatening. At the same time, the other becomes an entity whose very separateness inspires curiosity, invites inquiring knowledge.”

Medhurst argued in terms of power relations and the constructions of stereotypes, “ they are awful because they are not like us,” (Medhurst, 1997)

According to Evans (1998): “Old people in our culture are also segregated and treated as though they are waiting to die. There are close associations between dependency, illness, dying, and death. It seems that increasingly in our culture there are pressures that encourage a reversion to infantile feelings which have to be madly defended against.”










In the extract of Secret Diary of a Call Girl there are clear representations of Evans and Mulveys theories. These theories are further supported somewhat by camera work, mise-en-scene, sound, and editing.



The opening scene of the extract shows a medium-long shot of a below middle aged woman in a dress opening a door. There is non-diegetic music that helps sexualise the female character that dies off when the door is opened and reveals the disabled character. The female characters appearance with the accompaniment of the non-diegetic music supports Mulveys theory of the media over sexualising women. Due to the sexualised music ending when the disabled character enters it can be inferred as supporting Evans' 1998 theory where they believe disabled people are shown as unattractive in the media. The camera also tilts down from an eye-level view of the female character to accommodate for the disabled character, this can be seen as making the viewer look down on the disabled character which also supports Evans' theory as the disabled character is being shown as imperfect and helpless due to them being 'looked down on'.



The next shot is a close up of the female characters face in a close up from an eye-level view. This shot further supports Mulveys theory as she is being sexualised further by her appearance and use of cosmetics. There is diegetic dialogue in this shot where the female character unsurely asks a question to the other characters. Her speech is slow and contains filler in the form of a long "er". This adds to Evans theory again as it makes the scene more awkward and further creates the image of this disabled character being unattractive.


Near the middle of the extract there is a scene with the father of the disabled character and himself where the disabled character is placed on a large bed that has a sexualised theme to it. This could be seen as a juxtaposition due to Evans' theory of the disabled appearing as unattractive. There is no non-diegetic sound in this scene and there is no dialogue or diegetic music, this silence makes the scene slow down. As this is accompanied by the female character looking expectantly at the father, this makes the disabled character appear weaker as he is the only character not directly involved in the interaction which somewhat supports both Evans and Jordanovas theories as the disabled character is being made to feel helpless and is being objectified by the other characters lack of involvement with him. The fact that the female character has to ask the father to leave implies that the disabled character does not have the capacity to tell the father to leave which further supports Evans' theory of disabled people being helpless.


Near the end of the extract there is a scene where the disabled character is on the same bed with the female character but without the father.

Youth

• Criminals
• Addicts
• Drains on society
• Violent
• Lazy
• Arrogant
• Uneducated

In 1904 Stanley Hall wrote Adolescence in 2 volumes in 1904, in this text he puts forward a theory known as the ‘Storm & Stress Model;

1. The common mood of teenagers is a state of depression.
2. Criminal activity increases between the ages of 12 & 24.
3. Young people are extreme and need excitement; “Youth must have excitement and if this is not at hand in the form of moral intellectual enthusiasms it is more prone to be sought in; sex, drink or drugs.”

Bill Osgerby argues that; “The portrayal of youth is not entirely pessimistic,” and used the terms coined by Dick Hebdige (1988); “Youth as fun,” and “Youth as trouble maker.”

In the extract of Skins, the theories of Stanley Hall and Bill Osgerby are both supported and disrupted through the media language present in the clip. I will now explore this in more detail with reference to how; camera work, mise-en-scene, sound, and editing contribute to constructions of representations of youth.

The opening shot of the extract is an extreme close up of a young male character from a birds eye view. The character has one side of their face in darkness and one side not, which could have religious connotations and be representative of Osgerby’s theory of youth being both fun and trouble making, as represented by the light and dark sides of his face respectively. There is also a diegetic sound effect of church bells, which could relate to this imagery and add connotations of religion. Under the sound of church bells is the diegetic sound of an alarm clock. The fact that the character is awake before their alarm shows a disruption of the generic stereotype of youth being unruly and unprepared.

The next few shots are quickly cut together and show the male character performing a work out. The first shot of the sequence is a birds eye view shot which can be compared to the opening shot where it was the same angle but shows the character in a different position. It then shifts to an over the shoulder shot and continues on to show the male character looking at himself in a mirror. This shot is also over the shoulder and somewhat adheres to Halls theory of young people being prone to sexual activity, and drugs. Throughout all of the previous shots have a diegetic music track that sound bridges between shots and also somewhat supports Halls theory once again. 

Sexuality

Theorist ANDY MEDHURST (1998) claims that sexuality disrupt representation claims, like those made by Dyer (“How we are seen determines in part how we are treated; how we treat others on how we see them; such seeing comes from representation” Dyer, 1993), because in the REAL world you cannot ‘see’ sexuality. Unless someone tells you they are homosexual you have no way of knowing.

In the media, stereotypes are used to explore ideological positions about sexuality. “Films and television comedies are full of images of gay men as effeminate screaming queens…It chooses that aspect of gay male behaviour (SELECTION), inflates it into the defining male characteristic of male homosexuality (MAGNIFICATION), then establish it as the most easily recognizable image (REDUCTION).”

Medhurst argued this is done to make heterosexual viewers feel safe in the believe that there way of living is the only ‘natural one’. So, stereotyping for the ‘straight’ viewer makes them feel safe and superior. In addition, the embedded social norm of straight sexuality is reinforced.

“This is why stereotypes of sexuality strive so vigorously to create two, polarized sexualities, hetro and straight, and to insist with such obsessive reductiveness that people who belong to those poles are easily identifiable – hence the recurring presence across media texts of the screaming queen and his female equivalent the butch dyke.”


In the clip of EastEnders, Medhursts theory on sexuality is both